Chapter 5 - What Do We Know About the Families in Which Young Children Are Growing Up?

5.1 Who are the Parents of Canada's Young Children?

5.1.1 Mother's and Father's Education

... Just over half of parents have a university degree or college diploma

In 2002/03, 52.8% of all parents reported having completed post-secondary education, with similar rates for both mothers and fathers. Within this group of parents there is a narrowing of the education gap between mothers and fathers since 1998/99, when 45.3% of mothers and 48.7% of fathers reported having completed post-secondary education.

Fewer parents living in rural areas report having completed post-secondary education than their urban counterparts, although the proportion has increased in both areas. In 2002/03, 40.8% of parents living in rural areas and 54.3% of parents living in urban centres reported having post-secondary education, compared with 35.9% and 48.4% respectively in 1998/99.

Why is this important?

Canadian society has shifted increasingly toward a knowledge-based economy, with particular emphasis being placed on literacy, education and training for young people and adults. Similarly, the development of cognitive and learning supports for young children is necessary both for their educational and employment success and the continued progress of our society as a whole. Poor outcomes in early childhood may undermine subsequent education and skills development, while limiting future employment success and quality of life.⁵⁶ As such, it is important for parents to have the necessary skills to provide adequate resources to help their child succeed in our knowledge-based economy. The skills and resources that parents have are also important in providing a stimulating environment conducive to the motor, social and cognitive development of their child. For example, research has shown that high levels of educational attainment in mothers are positively related to children's vocabulary skills.⁵⁷ If children have early access to learning experiences in the home, and are read to often, they will be more likely to have better learning outcomes as they grow.⁵⁸

5.1.2 Parent Work/Study Status

... For the majority of young children, both parents or their lone parent are working or studying

In 2002/03, many children under 6 years of age lived in homes where their parent (in the case of single-parent households) or both parents were working or studying. This was the situation for 63.7% of children living with two parents and for 68.3% of children living with a single-parent. In 1998/99, these rates were somewhat higher — 68% and 71.1% respectively.

In 2002/03, children living in a two-parent family in a rural area were less likely to have both parents working or studying than those living in urban centres — 59.9% and 64.2% respectively. This difference was somewhat greater for children living with a single-parent in 2002/03, at 58.7% in rural areas and 69.3% in urban settings.

... while internationally

In 2002, 62.7% of Canadian mothers with children under 6 years of age were employed. Canada's rate of employment for mothers was greater than the rate in Australia (45%), Finland (49.4%), the United Kingdom (57%) and the United States (59.5%). In total, eight countries (as reported by the OECD) reported employment rates for mothers that were higher than Canada's, with Portugal being the highest at 79.2%.

Source: Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators, 2005 Edition⁵⁹

Why is this important?

For parents who are employed or studying and have young children, effective supports can be an important factor in allowing parents to maintain a stable work-life and work-family balance.⁶⁰ For mothers with young children, this is particularly important, as employment can often lead to greater levels of stress as a result of balancing both paid work and caring roles.⁶¹ Although fathers have become more active in care provision in recent times, women are still more likely to devote more time than men to care for young children. When this care is combined with responsibilities in the paid labour force, women are more likely to experience a "time crunch" ⁶².

5.1.3 Level of Income

... 87.3% of families with young children are not living in low income

In 2003, 12.7% of families with children under 6 years of age were living below the post-tax low income cutoff (LICO)⁶³ (18.1% were living below the pre-tax LICO). This represents a decline from 1999, where 16.4% lived below the post-tax LICO (and 21.7% lived below the pre-tax LICO).

The number of families living below the post-tax LICO has declined over time, although a significant difference remains between two-parent families and one-parent families. In 2003, almost half (46.4%) of single-parent families had after-tax income that fell below the LICO, compared with 7.5% of two-parent families. This difference has been increasing. In 2000, there were four times as many single-parent families living below the after-tax LICO than two-parent families; by 2003, this difference had increased to just over six times.

A similar trend holds when examining the pre-tax LICO. While the number of families living below the pre-tax LICO has also fallen, there still remains a large difference in the economic situation between two-parent families and one-parent families. In 2003, 56.1% of single-parent families had pre-tax income that fell below the LICO, compared with 12.3% of two-parent families.

Table 2 Percentage of Families with Children from Birth to 5 Years of Age Living Below the Low Income Cutoff by Family Type, 1999–2003
	Year	Two-Parent Families	Single-Parent Families	All Families*
Post-Tax LICO (1992 base)	1999	11.4%	47.1%	16.4%
	2000	11.2%	44.8%	15.6%
	2001	9.9%	36.7%	13.5%
	2002	8.3%	47.6%	13.9%
	2003	7.5%	46.4%	12.7%
Pre-Tax LICO (1992 base)	1999	16.0%	56.7%	21.7%
	2000	14.7%	52.0%	19.6%
	2001	14.4%	49.1%	19.2%
	2002	13.2%	61.0%	20.1%
	2003	12.3%	56.1%	18.1%
* “All families” includes children from birth to 5 years of age living in “no parent” families. Source: Survey of Labour and Income Dynamics (SLID), Statistics Canada (1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003).

Why is this important?

Child poverty has long-term consequences for children and society. Compared with children from families with higher incomes, poor children are at greater risk of suffering from inadequate nutrition, having mental and physical health problems, doing poorly in school, and encountering difficulties with the law.⁶⁴ The harmful effects of poverty in childhood can often linger long into the adult years, and increase expenditures for social assistance, social services, health care, employment insurance and the justice system.⁶⁵ Higher family income may mean being able to live in a safe neighbourhood with access to learning and leisure activities that promote cognitive development, while low income can compound the stresses that families face and have a negative effect on children's development. Positive parenting, safe and supportive neighbourhoods, and quality child care or early childhood development programs are all important factors that can mitigate this effect and contribute to healthy child development.⁶⁶

5.2 What Do We Know About the Care Arrangements of Young Children?

…. In 2002/03, just over half of all children under 6 years of age were in some form of child care

In 2002/03, 53% of children in Canada under 6 years of age were in some form of non-parental child care, up from 48.3% in 1998/99. Also, slightly more families living in urban centres relied on non-parental care (53.2%) than families living in rural areas (51.9%). This marks an increase from 49.6% for urban families and 39.1% for rural families in 1998/99.

Of families who used non-parental child care in 2002/03, 45.9% relied primarily on care in someone else's home, a decrease from 51.3% in 1998/99. For urban dwellers, there was a large decline in the use of care in someone else's home: in 1998/99,the rate was 50.8% and by 2002/03 the rate had fallen to 44.5%. Conversely, families in rural areas are increasingly likely to use care in someone else's home. In 1998/99, 55.5% of rural families who used child care brought their child to someone else's home. By 2002/03, this rate had increased to 57.3%.

Parental child care has decreased slightly over time, but remains a significant type of care arrangement for many children, with 47.0% of children in parental care in 2002/03.

Table 3 Primary Child Care Arrangement for Children from Birth to 5 Years of Age by Type of Child Care Used, 1998/99—2002/03
	Year	Parental Child Care	Non-Parental Child Care
			Care in Someone Else's Home	Care in Child's Home	Daycare Centre	Other
All Families	1998/99	51.7%	51.3%	25.9%	18.1%	4.7%
	2000/01	47.8%	49.3%	23.4%	23.2%	4.1%
	2002/03	47.0%	45.9%	21.6%	27.8%	4.7%
Families Living in Urban Settings	1998/99	50.4%	50.8%	25.9%	18.4%	4.9%
	2000/01	47.3%	48.2%	23.8%	23.6%	4.4%
	2002/03	46.8%	44.5%	22.1%	28.5%	4.9%
Families Living in Rural Settings	1998/99	60.9%	55.5%	26.0%	15.7%	2.8%
	2000/01	**	**	**	**	**
	2002/03	48.1%	57.3%	18.0%	21.7%	3.0%
** These data do not meet Statistics Canada’s quality standards and, therefore, have been suppressed. Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, Cycle 3 (1998/99), Cycle 4 (2000/01) and Cycle 5 (2002/03).

… Hours of use of non-parental child care is shifting

32.9% of children in non-parental child care spend 40 hours or more per week in their main child care arrangement, although this percentage has been decreasing since 1998/99. In 2002/03, 33.5% of young children living in urban centres, who were in non-parental child care, were in care for 40 or more hours per week, compared with only 27.4% of young children living in rural settings.

Overall, the percentage of families relying on their main child care arrangement for less than 24 hours per week increased from 37.8% in 1998/99 to 40.7% in 2002/03. While for families in urban centres, the rate increased from 37.3% in 1998/99 to 40.4% in 2002/03, the rate remained constant (43.0% and 43.2% respectively) in rural areas. Of particular note is the increasing percentage of families using less than 10 hours of non-parental child care. This percentage has increased from 12.5% in 1998/99 to 16.6% in 2002/03.

Table 4 Non-Parental Child Care for Children from Birth to 5 Years of Age by Number of Hours per Week, 1998/99—2002/03
	Year	Less Than 10 Hrs/Week	Between 10 to 23 Hrs/Week	Between 24 to 40 Hrs/Week	More than 40 Hrs/Week
All Families	1998/99	12.5%	25.3%	28.6%	33.6%
	2000/01	13.7%	25.7%	27.3%	33.2%
	2002/03	16.6%	24.1%	26.5%	32.9%
Families Living in Urban Settings	1998/99	12.3%	25.0%	28.5%	34.2%
	2000/01	13.5%	25.7%	27.2%	33.7%
	2002/03	16.3%	24.0%	26.1%	33.5%
Families Living in Rural Settings	1998/99	15.2%	27.8%	28.7%	28.3%
	2000/01	16.0%	25.9%	28.8%	29.4%
	2002/03	18.9%	24.3%	29.4%	27.4%
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth Cycle 3 (1998/99), Cycle 4 (2000/01) and Cycle 5 (2002/03).

Why is this important?

Today's families face challenges in balancing theirwork and family lives. There are a wide range of supports for families with young children, which are designed to assist parents balance their earning and caring roles, and help with the costs of raising children. The number of dual-earner families in Canada has almost doubled in the last 25 years and, similarly, there has been a substantial increase in the number of women with young children participating in the paid labour force or pursuing post-secondary education.⁶⁷ As such, access to a number of different child care options — options that are flexible enough to help parents in rural and remote areas, those working non-standard hours, or those with children with disabilities — remains important for families to ensure the caring needs of Canada's young children are met.

5.3 What About the Well-Being of Parents?

5.3.1 Parental Depression⁶⁸

... Self-reported rates of parental depression have declined since 1998/99

The vast majority of parents with young children do not report high levels of depressive symptoms; in 2002/03, 9.3% of parents reported high levels of such symptoms.

This represents a decline since 1998/99, in both urban and rural areas. In 1998/99, 11.3% of urban parents and 10.3% of rural parents reported high levels of depressive symptoms. These rates had fallen to 9.4% in urban settings and 8.8% in rural settings in 2002/03.

Why is this important?

Parental depression, regardless of its cause, can limit a "parent's ability to play an effective role in the life of his or her child."⁶⁹ Parents who are depressed are generally less attentive and responsive to their children's needs. This can affect the development of the child at different stages of life. Infants with depressed mothers are known to develop passivity, withdrawal and self-regulatory behaviours.⁷⁰,⁷¹ In addition, cognitive performance may be lower in infants with depressed mothers.⁷² For toddlers and preschoolers the implications of parental depression include increased non-compliance⁷³ and lower cognitive functioning.⁷⁴

5.3.2 Smoking During Pregnancy⁷⁵

… Maternal smoking during pre gnancy continues to decline

In 2002/03, 15.9% of children under 2 years of age had mothers who reported smoking during their pregnancy. This represented a decline from the 1998/99 figure of 19.4%. Mothers of children under 2 years of age in urban centres were less likely to smoke during pregnancy than those living in rural areas. In 1998/99, 18.4% of urban mothers of children under 2 years of age reported smoking during pregnancy compared with 15.4% in 2002/03. Among rural women, 26.9% of mothers of children under 2 years of age reported having smoked during pregnancy in 1998/99, declining to 19.1% by 2002/03.

Why is this important?

Smoking during pregnancy has been linked to a number of adverse outcomes in children — including asthma, acute middle ear infections, cancer, slower growth, SIDS, upper respiratory infections and low birth weight — and is a key risk factor related to some causes of infant mortality. In addition to these health risks, smoking during pregnancy has also been associated with increased negative behaviour (impulsiveness, risk-taking and rebelliousness) in toddlers⁷⁶ and childhood anxiety and depression.⁷⁷

5.3.3 Alcohol Use During Pregnancy

... 84.4% of pregnant women do not use alcohol during pregnancy

In 2002/03, 84.4% of mothers with a child under age 2 reported that they did not use alcohol while pregnant. In 1998/99, 85.6% of mothers reported that they did not use alcohol during their pregnancy and in 2000/01 86.1% reported no use of alcohol during their pregnancy.

Why is this important?

According to the Public Health Agency of Canada, "there is no safe amount of alcohol during pregnancy. There is also no safe time to drink during pregnancy."⁷⁸ The most severe consequences of maternal alcohol consumption are fetal alcohol syndrome (with effects including brain damage; vision and hearing problems; bones, limbs and fingers that are not properly formed; organ damage; and slow growth⁷⁹) and alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder. Both have been associated with negative impacts on cognitive development and behaviour in young children.

5.3.4 Parental Smoking

... Parental smoking is declining

In 2002/03, 67.6% of children from birth to 5 years of age lived in a household where neither parent smokes, up from 61.4% in 1998/99. This increase was more prevalent in rural families: up from 57.8% in 1998/99 to 62.4% in 2002/03. This is in comparison to a more modest increase in urban families, from 62.2% to 64.4% during the same time period.

Why is this important?

Research has established that parental smoking has a direct impact on the health of young children. Infants living in homes where one or more parents smoke are at risk for SIDS. Children exposed to second-hand smoke have higher incidences of asthma, allergies, respiratory tract infections and ear infections and are more likely to be hospitalized for breathing problems. They are also two to three times more likely to start smoking, often between the ages of 11 and 13.⁸⁰

5.4 What Do We Know About Parenting in Canada?

... The majority of Canadian children live in families that are functioning well and have positive interaction

In 2002/03, 90.2% of children from birth to 5 years of age lived in well-functioning families, up from 89.1% in 1998/99 and 88.6% in 2000/01.

In 2002/03, 93.3% of young children experienced high levels of positive interaction with their parents. This represents a marked increase over 1998/99, when the reported rate was 88%. This trend holds true regardless of the gender of the child or where he/she lives.

Why is this important?

Family functioning is a key indicator of the quality of the relationship between parents and children. Families that have a high level of functioning work at problem solving, communication and being supportive of each other. Research has shown that high family functioning can offset the effects of low income and influences a range of childhood outcomes such as aggressive behaviour, pro-social behaviour, academic achievement and high school completion.⁸¹

The quality of interaction between parents and children contributes to both positive and negative outcomes for children. Positive parenting, including monitoring behaviour, setting limits and boundaries, and encouraging independence, has been shown to be a major positive influence on children's development. Parenting problems, including over-controlling behaviour, harsh discipline, and a lack of responsiveness and warmth, can lead to the development of childhood disorders, especially conduct disorders.

The World Health Organization has determined, based on an extensive review of research, that there are "two fundamental qualities that determine a caregiver's ability to provide effective care: sensitivity and responsiveness to the child... A strong and supportive caregiving relationship supports the development of a child who is physically, intellectually and socially healthy and is more resilient to the damaging effects of poverty and violence."⁸²

... Over two-thirds of young children are read to daily by a parent or other adult

In 2002/03, 67.3% of young children were read to daily by a parent or other adult, an increase from 58.2% of young children in 1998/99. The largest increase has been for females living in urban centres, where the rate went from 58.6% in 1998/99 to 68% in 2002/03.

Why is this important?

Regularly reading to young children helps them develop language and vocabulary skills, while also promoting greater book awareness and interest in reading for young children. Increasingly, research is showing that the child's early years are critical to future academic and lifelong success⁸³. In promoting an early sensitivity to the sounds and structure of spoken language, parents are helping improve the foundation for later reading success in their young children.

Reading to children is also a social activity that strengthens the parent-child bond, while providing great entertainment for children and parents alike. Reading to children frequently and in different places, combined with a variety of high-quality books, including alphabet books, picture books and books with rhyming can serve to enhance a young child's experience with reading⁸⁴. Fun reading activities, such as oral stories and rhymes, and songs, can also contribute to the growth of language in young children. These family literacy activities help provide personal, structured attention for young children, while simultaneously enhancing their phonological awareness — the understanding of the sounds and meaning of spoken language — which are tied to later oral language development, and reading comprehension⁸⁵.

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⁵⁶ Government of Canada (2001). Knowledge Matters: Skills and Learning for Canadians. Ottawa: Human Resources Development Canada.

⁵⁷ Willms, J. D. (2002). Raising and Leveling the Learning Bar: A Background Report for the HRDC Skills and Learning Task Force. Ottawa: Human Resources Development Canada.

⁵⁸ Government of Canada (2001). Knowledge Matters: Skills and Learning for Canadians. Ottawa: Human Resources Development Canada.

⁵⁹ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2005). "Selection of OECD Social Indicators: How Does Canada Compare?" Society at a Glance: OECD Social Indicators. Paris: OECD. Available at: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/34/38/34553342.xls.

⁶⁰ Work-life balance refers to a self-defined, self-determined state of well-being that a person can reach, or can set as a goal, that allows them to manage effectively multiple responsibilities at work, at home, and in their community; it supports physical, emotional, family, and community health, and does so without grief, stress or negative impact. Work-family balance refers to the management of family responsibilities towards children, aging parents, a disabled family member, or a partner/spouse. (Human Resources and Skills Development Canada, "Work/Life Balance and New Workplace Challenges — Frequently Asked Questions For Individuals," http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/asp/gateway.asp?hr=en/lp/spila/wlb/faq/01individuals.shtml&hs=wnc.)

⁶¹ Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2005). Babies and Bosses — Reconciling Work and Family Life: Canada, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom, Vol. 4. Paris: OECD. 1—242.

⁶² Smith, A. (2004). Who Cares? Fathers and the Time They Spend Looking After Children. Department of Sociology Working Paper No. 2004-05. Oxford: University of Oxford, Nuffield College.

⁶³ Canada does not have an official measure of poverty. However, the most commonly used measure of low income is Statistics Canada's low income cutoff(LICO), which is based on the proportion of annual income spent on basic needs (food, clothing and shelter). A household is considered to be "low income" when its income is below the cutoff for its family size and community. LICOs can be calculated using before- or after-tax income. Statistics Canada highlights post-tax LICOs, as they better reflect the redistributive effects of taxes and transfers, and because purchases are made with disposable income, it is logical to use people's after-tax income to drawconclusions about their overall economic well-being.

⁶⁴ Federal/Provincial/Territorial Ministers Responsible for Social Services (1997). The National Child Benefit: Building a Better Future for Canadian Children. Ottawa: Canada Customs and Revenue Agency.

⁶⁵ Ibid.

⁶⁶ Ibid.

⁶⁷ Statistics Canada (2003). Women in Canada: Work chapter updates. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/89F0133XIE/89F0133XIE2003000.pdf

⁶⁸ The data on young children for the NLSCY were collected from the Person Most Knowledgeable (PMK). In 87.8% of cases, the PMK was the biological mother; 10.8% of PMKs were the biological father, .6% were an adoptive mother/father, and .7% were not a parent. For the purposes of this discussion, therefore, we refer to "parental depression."

⁶⁹ Somers, M. and J. D. Willms (2002). "Maternal Depression and Childhood Vulnerability." J. D. Willms (ed.) Vulnerable Children: Findings from Canada's National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press and Human Resources Development Canada.

⁷⁰ Cohn, J. F. and E. Tornick (1989). "Specificity of Infants' Response to Mothers' Affective Behaviour."
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 28: 242—248.

⁷¹ Hart, S. et al. (1998). "Depressed Mothers' Interactions with Their One-Year-Old Infants." Infant Behavioural Development. 21: 519—525.

⁷² Murray, L. (1992). "The Impact of Postnatal Depression on Infant Development." Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 33: 543—561.

⁷³ Kuczynski, L. and G. Kochanska (1990). "Development of Children's Non-Compliance Strategies from Toddlerhood to Age 5." Development Psychology. 26: 398—408.

⁷⁴ Murray, L. et al. (1996). "The Cognitive Development of 5-Year-Old Children of Postnatally Depressed Mothers." Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 37: 927—935.

⁷⁵ Data on smoking during pregnancy is available only for children from birth through 1 year of age (0 to 23 months).

⁷⁶ Brook, J. S., D. W. Brook and M. Whiteman (2000). "The Influence of Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy on the Toddler's Negativity."Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 154(4): 381-385.

⁷⁷ Tomas, J. (2001). "Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy Associated with Negative Toddler Behaviour and Smoking Experimentation." NIDA Notes. March 2001. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

⁷⁸ Public Health Agency of Canada (2005). Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) (pamphlet). Ottawa: Public Health Agency of Canada. Available at: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/fasd-etcaf/pdf/faq_fasd_e.pdf.

⁷⁹ For a more complete discussion of the effects of alcohol use during pregnancy, see www.alcoholfreepregnancy.ca/eng/faq.html.

⁸⁰ Canadian Pediatric Society Psychosocial Pediatrics Committee (2001). "Smoking and Your Child: What Parents Should Know." Pediatrics and Child Health. Vol. 6. No. 2. February 2001. Available at: http://www.caringforkids.cps.ca/healthy/Tobacco.htm.

⁸¹ Bornstein, M. et al. (2003). Well-Being: Positive Development Across the Life Course. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

⁸² Richter, L. (2004). The Importance of Caregiver-Child Interactions for the Survival and Healthy Development of Young Children: A Review. Geneva: World Health Organization.

⁸³ Canadian Council on Learning (2006) "Lessons in Learning — How Parents Foster Early Literacy". The Learning Link, Virtual Bulletin. February 1, 2006. Canadian Council on Learning. Available at: http://www.ccl-cca.ca/english/resources/lessons/020206.asp

⁸⁴ Ibid.

⁸⁵ Ibid.