3 - A Portrait of Canadian Families
The objective of this chapter is to paint a portrait of the family environment
in which the young children of today are growing up. As research becomes
available, future reports will be able to explore the influences that
families have on children’s outcomes. “Understanding the impacts
of environmental influences can help us make choices that build more supportive
environments for children and enhance their development.”27
Specifically, this chapter will answer some key questions about the families
in which young Canadian children are growing up: What kind of families
do young Canadian children live in? Who are the parents of young Canadian
children? How do they parent?
What Kind of Families Do Young Canadian Children
Live In?
The majority of young children are growing up in two-parent families – either blended or intact.28 In 1998-1999, 86% of young children lived in two-parent families.
Figure 15: Distribution of Young Children in Canada by
Family Type, 1998-1999
D
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, Cycle 3 (1998-1999)
The number of lone-parent families in Canada has increased in the past couple of decades. Between 1971 and 1991, the proportion of lone-parent families increased from 9.4% of all families to 13% of all families.29 In 1998-1999, 14.1% of young children lived in lone-parent families. The proportion of female-led lone-parent families is substantially larger than male-led lone-parent families. In 1998-1999, 13.5% of all young children lived in a lone-parent family that was led by a female compared to 0.6% in male-led lone-parent families.
Children who experience parental separation do so at a younger age. Whereas approximately 5% of children born in the early 1960s experienced parental separation before their sixth birthday, almost 25% of children born in the late 1980s30 would experience this phenomenon before their sixth birthday.
The number and proportion of large families has declined over the past years. In 1901, the average family consisted of 4.5 people. By 1986, the average size had dropped to 3.1 people 31 and further declined to 3.0 in 1998-1999. In 1998-1999, over 25% of young children in Canada were only children (did not have siblings).
In addition, mothers are choosing to have children later in life. With an increased focus on education and beginning a career, women are choosing to delay child birth. Consequently, since the 1960s, the average age of a mother at the birth of her first child has been steadily increasing. In the late 1960s, women were having their first baby around the age of 23. By 1999, this had increased to approximately 27 years of age.32
With the increased age of the mother at child birth and decreased family size, the total fertility rate in Canada is declining. In 1999, the total fertility rate for Canada was 1.52 children per woman, representing, over the past 20 years, a 40% decline in the total fertility rate for women ages 20 to 24 and a 25% decline for women ages 25 to 29.
What type of housing and communities do these families live in?
The type of housing people live in tends to have an impact on their lifestyle.
Research conducted using 1996 Census data indicates that the majority of Canadian children from birth to18 years of age live in households that meet the standards of affordability, suitability and adequacy, although 15% of children live in “core housing need,” where the housing does not meet one of these standards. Typically, children living in rental accommodations were much more likely to be living in core housing need (36% of rental households compared to 7% of owner households). 33
Parents wish to raise their children in neighbourhoods that are cohesive and foster a sense of safety and security. In 1998-1999, 84.9% of NLSCY respondents indicated that they felt a sense of satisfaction, safety and cohesion with the neighbourhood in which they lived.34 In general, people living in rural communities were slightly more content with their neighbourhoods than those living in urban areas.
Beginning in the late 1990s, the Government of Canada began research in 13 selected Canadian communities to learn more about the influence of community factors on children’s early development and to improve the community’s capacity to use these data in monitoring child development and creating effective community-based responses. This initiative, called Understanding the Early Years (UEY) provides new information on the relationship between communities and child development. Future reports may present findings from the UEY initiative.
Who Are the Parents of Young Canadian Children?
Education
In the current knowledge-based economy, a high value is placed on education.
“It is in skills and learning that our economic and social goals
find common expression.” 35
Figure 16: Highest Level of Education of Parents of Young Children, Canada,
1998-1999.
D
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, Cycle 3 (1998-1999)
In 1998-1999, almost half of the parents of young children had obtained postsecondary education. As illustrated in figure 16, there was only a 3.3% difference in the proportion of fathers and mothers who had completed postsecondary education (48.7% of fathers compared with 45.4% of mothers). The number of mothers with young children who have a university or college degree has been steadily increasing over the past decade.
Work Outside the Home
A significant majority of young children have two parents working outside the home. In addition, the proportion of lone-parent families where the parent works outside the home has continued to rise.
Figure 17: Trends in Dual-Earner and Single-Earner Families
with Young Children, Canada, 1976–2001
D
Source: Labour Force Survey, Public-Use Micro-File
Note: Due to data collection problems, data for 2000 have been omitted.
Even though more parents are working, mothers of young children report working fewer hours of paid work on average than either their spouses or women with older children.36 In addition, fewer mothers with children under 1 year of age are working compared to mothers with children ages 1 to 5 years.
When compared to the countries in the European Union, Canada has among the highest percentage of employed mothers with young children. In 1996, 60% of Canadian mothers with at least one child under the age of 6 years were employed,37 compared to 42% in Italy, 40% in Luxembourg and 36% in Spain.38
Health Risks
Over the past several years, an increased number of public awareness campaigns have advised on the dangers of smoking and drinking during pregnancy. Research indicates that smoking during pregnancy can lead to child health problems such as low birthweight and pre-term births. Alcohol consumption during pregnancy contributes to an increased risk of fetal alcohol syndrome/fetal alcohol effect.39
Figure 18: Tobacco and Alcohol Use During Pregnancy, Canada,
1998-1999
D
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, Cycle 3 (1998-1999)
In 1998-1999, in Canada, 14.5% of mothers consumed some alcohol while pregnant and 19.4% of mothers smoked. In comparison, in the United States in 1999, approximately 13% of mothers smoked cigarettes while pregnant 40 while in the United Kingdom in 2000, 20% of mothers smoked during their pregnancy.41
In addition to the warnings about substance use during pregnancy, society has become much more aware of the associated negative effects of second-hand smoke. Young children are particularly susceptible to the effects of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), which can lead to a variety of health problems, both at birth as well as later on in life 42(such as low birthweight, asthma).
In 1998-1999, 72.6% of the persons most knowledgeable about the child (PMK) and 70.4% of their spouses did not smoke at all. Of those who did smoke, the majority did so daily. Research shows that the presence of a household member who smokes daily will greatly increase the likelihood that children in the same household are exposed to a polluted environment. 43
What are some of the challenges confronting the parents of young children?
In Canada there is no official measure of poverty. Instead, there are several different measures that are used. The Low-Income Cut-Off (LICO) is one of the most widely used; it is a relative measure based on the percentage of income spent on basic needs by an average family. This measure can be examined using either pre-tax income or post-tax income.44
| Table 1: Percentage of Families with Young Children Living Below the Low-Income Cut-Off, by Family Type, 1999 |
|||
| Two-Parent Family | Lone-Parent Family | All Families | |
| Pre-Tax LICO (1992 base) | 14.8 | 59.7 | 21.1 |
| Post-Tax LICO (1992 base) | 10 | 49.5 | 15.6 |
| Source: Statistics Canada, Survey of Labour and Income Dynamics | |||
In 1999, 21.1% of all families with children from birth to 5 years of age were living below the pre-tax LICO (and 15.6% were living below the post-tax LICO).
Lone-parent families are more likely to live in low income than two-parent families. In 1999, 49.5% of lone-parent families were living below the post-tax LICO compared to 10% of two-parent families.
The depth of low income indicates the additional amount of income an average family with young children living below the LICO would need to reach the cut-off. In 1999, the average low-income family would have required an increase of either $8,625 before tax or $6,255 after tax to bring them to the LICO.
Depression is a parental health characteristic which can potentially affect a “parent’s ability to play an effective role in the life of his or her child.” 45
The depression scale in the NLSCY represents a condensed version of the Depression Rating Scale (CES-D). This scale measures the occurrence and severity of symptoms associated with depression in the public at large, not the occurrence of clinically diagnosed depression. In the NLSCY, the scale captures the existence of symptoms of depression, as reported by the parent responding. Depression is measured by a poor appetite, an inability to shake off the blues and/or concentrate, feelings of depression and restless sleep.
In 1998-1999, 88.8% of respondents, who were typically mothers, indicated that they did not exhibit signs of depression.
What Do We Know About Parenting in Canada?
Parenting Style
Parenting style is one of the primary factors affecting children’s outcomes. Two key measures of parenting style are positive interaction and family functioning. 46
Figure 19: Percentage of Parents of Young Children Displaying
Positive Parenting Styles,
Canada, 1998-1999
D
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, Cycle 3 (1998-1999)
In 1998-1999, 88% of parents indicated that they had positive interaction within the family. Parents who have a high level of positive interaction with their child(ren) tend to praise the child, play games with the child and laugh together.
Family functioning refers “…to the way in which families work together on tasks that are necessary for the family unit to survive.”47 A family that has a high level of functioning tends to participate in such activities as problem solving, communication and offering support to each other. In 1998-1999, 89.1% of families indicated positive functioning among family members.
Canadian researchers have recently studied the time crunch being felt by parents as they try to balance work and family. The findings indicate that the amount of time parents working outside the home spend with their young children has been steadily increasing in recent years.48 The research also suggests that the largest increase in time spent with children was seen in parents with at least one child less than 6 years of age. Despite the increase in time pressure arising from balancing work and family when both parents are working outside the home, parents are still finding time for their young children.49
Figure 20: Time Spent with Children from Birth to 5 Years
of Age by an Employed, Married Parent,
Canada, 1986, 1992 and 1998
D
Source: Adapted from Jiri Zuzanek, “Parenting Time: Enough or Too
Little?” in Isuma – Canadian Journal of Policy Research.
Summer 2001, pp. 129. Data originate from the General Social Survey, Statistics
Canada.
Many parents make use of non-parental child care arrangements when their children are young. In 1998-1999, 45.9% of parents who had children up to 5 years of age used care in a home setting by a non-relative as their primary child care arrangement. Another 31.5% of parents made use of care in a home setting by a relative (other than the parent) for those times when they could not be with their child(ren). The remaining 22.7% used services such as daycare centres, before and after school programs and nursery school.50
For many children, the bedtime story is part of a nightly ritual. Reading exposes children to language and vocabulary as well as giving them contact with an adult. “Reading to a child has a particularly strong positive effect on both behaviour and preschool vocabulary skills.” 51
Figure 21: Frequency That Young Canadian Children Are
Read To, Canada, 1998-1999
D
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, Cycle 3 (1998-1999)
In 1998-1999, almost 70% of all children from birth to 5 years of age were read to at least once per day by the child’s parent or another adult (i.e. daycare worker, other relative).
| Highlights Parents play an important role in the lives of their children. The profile of the Canadian family presented reveals that:
|
25. Federal/Provincial/Territorial Council of Ministers on Social Policy Renewal (1999) A National Children’s Agenda – Developing a Shared Vision. Canada.
26.Zuzanek, J. (Summer 2001) “Parenting Time: Enough or Too Little?” (pp. 125–133) in Isuma – Canadian Journal of Policy Research. Volume 2, Number 2.
27. Federal/Provincial/Territorial Council of Ministers on Social Policy Renewal (1999) A National Children’s Agenda – Developing a Shared Vision. Canada.
28. A blended family is typically made up of one biological parent and one step-parent while an intact family consists of both biological parents.
29. Péron, Y. “The Evolution of Census Families from 1971 to 1991” (pp. 47–100) in Canadian Families at the Approach of the Year 2000. Statistics Canada. Catalogue No. 96-321-MPE No.4.
30. Marcil-Gratton, N. (1998) Growing up with Mom and Dad? Children and Family Instability. Ottawa: Human Resources Development Canada, Applied Research Branch.
31. The Vanier Institute of the Family (2000) Profiling Canada’s Families II. Ottawa: Vanier Institute of the Family.
32. Health Statistics Division, Statistics Canada.
33. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Research Highlights – Special Studies on 1996 Census Data: Housing Canada’s Children. (Socio-Economic Series, Issue 55-4). Ottawa: Government of Canada.
34. The Neighbourhood Cohesion Scale in the NLSCY is used to measure the extent to which the person most knowledgeable about the child feels that there is cohesion within the community in which they live.
35. Human Resources Development Canada (2002) Knowledge Matters – Skills and Learning for Canadians. Canada’s Innovation Strategy. Ottawa: Government of Canada.
36. Silver, C. (2000, summer) “Being There: The Time Dual-Earner Couples Spend with Their Children” in Canadian Social Trends. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
37. Statistics Canada (1996) Canadian Census
38. Eurostat (1996)
Custom Tabulation.
39. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
(FAS) is a medical diagnosis that refers to a specific cluster of anomalies
associated with the use of alcohol during pregnancy. The three main characteristics
of FAS are prenatal and/or postnatal growth restriction, characteristic
facial features and central nervous system involvement. Fetal Alcohol
Effects (FAE) refers to children with prenatal exposure to alcohol, but
only some FAS characteristics.
40. Health, United States, 2001, With Urban and Rural Health Chartbook. (2001) United States: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Center for Health Statistics.
41.BMRB Social Research (2000) 2000 Infant Feeding Survey. United Kingdom: Department of Health.
42. Federal, Provincial and Territorial Advisory Committee on Population Health (1999) Statistical Report on the Health of Canadians. Canada.
43. Physicians for a Smoke-Free Canada (1999) Highlight Sheet #1 – Smoking in Canadian Homes, Are Children at Risk? Ottawa.
44. The pre-tax LICO is set according to the proportion of annual pre-tax income (total income including government transfers before the deduction of income taxes) spent on basic needs (food, clothing and shelter). A household that spends 20% more on basic needs than the average family is considered to be living below the pre-tax LICO. The pre-tax LICO is adjusted for location and family size.
The post-rax LICO is set according t the proportion of annual post-tax income (total income including governemnt transfers after the deduction of income taxes) spent on basic need (food, clothing and shelter). Again, a household that spends 20% more on basic needs than the average family is considered to be living below the post-tax LICO. The post-tax LICO is also adjusted for location and family size.
45. Somers, M-A and Willms, J.D. (2002) “Maternal Depression and Childhood Vulnerability” (pp. 211–228) in J. Douglas Willms (ed.) Vulnerable Children. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press and Human Resources Development Canada.
46.The parenting scales in the NLSCY measure certain parental behaviours. The questions assessing parenting styles were administered to the PMK about the child or spouse/partner of the PMK. Positive interaction is one of the styles being measured. The family functioning scale provides a global assessment of family functioning (including problem solving, communication, roles, affective involvement, affective responsiveness and behaviour control) and indicates the quality of relationships between family members. This scale is administered to either the PMK about the child or the spouse/partner. The scale does not reflect a clinical diagnosis
47. .Racine, Y. and Boyle, M.H. (2002) “Family Functioning and Children’s Behaviour Problems” (pp. 199–209) in J. Douglas Willms (ed.) Vulnerable Children. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press and Human Resources Development Canada.
48. Time spent with children refers to the amount of time spent with the child by one or both parents and includes caring for the child.
49. Zuzanek, J. (Summer 2001). “Parenting Time: Enough or Too Little?” in Isuma - Canadian Journal of Policy Research. Volume 2 No. 2. .
50. National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, Cycle 3 (1998-1999).
51. Cook, C. and Willms, J.D. (2002) “Balancing Work and Family Life” in J.D. Willms (ed). Vulnerable Children. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press and Human Resources Development Canada.